Haiwan

Feromon bagi spesies serangga perosak, seperti kumbang Jepun ("Japanese beetle") dan rama-rama gipsi "gypsy moth", boleh digunakan bagi merangsang banyak kelakuan. Hasilnya, perangkap feromon boleh digunakan bagi memerangkap serangga perosak bagi tujuan pemantauan, bagi mengawal populasi dengan menyebabkan kekeliruan, bagi menganggu pengawanan, termasuk menghalang perteluran lanjut.

Bagi mamalia dan reptilia, feromon mungkin di kesan oleh organ vomeronasal ("vomeronasal organ / VNO"), atau organ Jacobson, yang terletak antara hidung dan mulut dan merupakan tahap pertama bagi sistem olfaktori tambahan. Sesetengah feromon bagi haiwan ini dikesan oleh selaput olfaktori biasa.

Humans

Few well-controlled scientific studies have ever been published suggesting the possibility of pheromones in humans.

The best known case involves the synchronization of menstrual cycles among women based on unconscious odor cues (the McClintock effect, named after the primary investigator, Martha McClintock, of the University of Chicago).[12][13] This study exposed a group of women to a whiff of perspiration from other women. It was found that it caused their menstrual cycles to speed up or slow down depending on the time in the month the sweat was collected; before, during, or after ovulation. Therefore, this study proposed that there are two types of pheromone involved: "One, produced prior to ovulation, shortens the ovarian cycle; and the second, produced just at ovulation, lengthens the cycle". However, recent studies and reviews of the McClintock methodology have called into question the validity of her results.[14]

It has been suggested that women with irregular menstrual cycles became regular when exposed to male underarm extracts.[15] They hypothesized that male sweat contains pheromones, which mirror how pheromones affect other mammals.[15]

Other studies have demonstrated that the smell of androstadienone, a chemical component of male sweat, maintains higher levels of cortisol in females,[16] and that the compound is detected via the olfactory mucosa.[17] The scientists suggest that the ability of this compound to influence the endocrine balance of the opposite sex makes it a human pheromonal chemosignal. In 2002, a study showed an unnamed synthetic chemical in women's perfume appeared to increase intimate contact with men. The authors hypothesize, but do not demonstrate, that the observed behavioural differences are olfactorily mediated.[18] This and a previous study by the same authors with the still undisclosed "pheromone" preparation has been heavily criticized for having methodological flaws and that upon re-analyzing there was no effect seen.[19][20]

Other studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates who are not closely related to themselves. Using a brain imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that homosexual and heterosexual males' brains respond differently to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women, though it could not be determined whether this was cause or effect.[perlu rujukan] The study was expanded to include homosexual women; the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that homosexual women were not as responsive to male identified odors, while their response to female cues was similar to heterosexual males.[21] According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation.[22] In 2008, it was found using functional magnetic resonance imaging that the right orbitofrontal cortex, right fusiform cortex, and right hypothalamus respond to airborne natural human sexual sweat. [23]

In 2006, it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium. Called the trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), some are activated by volatile amines found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone.[24] Orthologous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection.[25]

Some body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones which act as an aphrodisiac. In the 1970s, "copulins" were patented as products which release human pheromones, based on research on rhesus monkeys.[26] Subsequently, androstenone, axillary sweat, and "vomodors" have been claimed to act as human pheromones.[27] Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study.[26][27][28]